Abstract：Against the backdrop of globalization and rapid urbanization, increasing differences between various social groups in cities, particularly racial and ethnic groups, have been witnessed due to their diverse socio-cultural backgrounds and daily-life habits. The present study summarizes the existing Western and Chinese literature on racial/ethnic residential segregation. It concludes that, echoing the "mobilities turn" of urban studies, more and more writings on socio-spatial segregation have adopted the new mobilities paradigm by addressing the limitations of conventional residential-based perspective. Specifically, while past studies mostly conceptualized socio-spatial segregation in terms of residential locations (the extent to which members of different social groups live apart) through the use of census data, such conventional residential-based perspective of segregation ignores people's experience of segregation in the daily activity locations other than residential neighborhoods, thus evoking increasing scholarly attention to the analyses of segregation in individual activity spaces. Four research foci can be identified from this new strand of studies, namely intergroup difference in activity-travel behavior, measurement of racial/ethnic segregation from an activity-space perspective, mobility disadvantage of ethnic minorities, and hybrid geographical analyses of the subjective experience of activity-space segregation. Through summarizing the contributions and limitations of the existing studies, the present study proposes a new, integrated research framework on ethnic socio-spatial segregation through the perspective of space-time behavior, especially the time-geographic discourse on space-time constraints as an effective theoretical lens to decipher the roles of ethnic collective routines in shaping the minorities' experience of segregation. Such a framework is conducive to better comprehending of socio-spatial segregation in the transitioning Chinese cities, as well as more insights into the everyday life and sociospatial integration of different ethnic groups (especially the ethnic minorities).
Duncan O D, Duncan B. A methodological analysis of segregation indexes[J]. American Sociological Review, 1955,20(2):210-217.
[2]
Massey D S, Denton N A. The dimensions of residential segregation [J]. Social Forces, 1988,67(2):281-315.
[3]
Waldorf B S. Segregation in urban space: A new measurement approach[J]. Urban Studies, 1993,30(7):1151-1164.
[4]
Wong D W, Shaw S-L. Measuring segregation: An activity space approach[J]. Journal of Geographical Systems, 2011,13(2):127-145.
[5]
Van Kempen R, ?ule Özüekren A. Ethnic segregation in cities: New forms and explanations in a dynamic world[J]. Urban Studies, 1998, 35(10):1631-1656.
[6]
Kwan M P. Analysis of human spatial behavior in a GIS environment: Recent developments and future prospects[J]. Journal of Geographical Systems, 2000,2(1):85-90.
[7]
Kwan M P. Beyond space (as we knew it):Toward temporally integrated geographies of segregation, health, and accessibility[J]. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 2013,103(5):1078-1086.
[8]
Silm S, Ahas R. Ethnic differences in activity spaces: A study of outof-home nonemployment activities with mobile phone data[J]. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 2014,104(3):542- 559.
许宪隆. 散杂居民族概论[M]. 第1版. 北京:人民出版社,2013:1- 313. [Xu Xianlong. An Introduction to the Studies of Scattered Ethnic Groups[M]. The 1st Edition. Beijing: People's Press, 2013: 1- 313.]
[11]
Guo Z. Nationality, hukou, and ethnicity: The institutional structure of citizenship in contemporary mainland China[J]. Association of Cambridge Studies, 2014,9(4):1-19.
[12]
杨超杰,赵阳,张明军,等.少数民族聚居区居民幸福感及影响因素分析——基于兰州市的调查数据[J]. 干旱区资源与环境,2015, 29(12): 31-36. [Yang Chaojie, Zhao Yang, Zhang Mingjun, et al. Studied on residents' happiness index and its influencing factors in the minority areas of Lanzhou city[J]. Journal of Arid Land Resources and Environment, 2015,29(12):31-36.]
[13]
周尚意. 现代大都市少数民族聚居区如何保持繁荣——从北京牛街回族聚居区空间特点引出的布局思考[J]. 北京社会科学, 1997(1):76-81,83-84. [Zhou Shangyi. How ethnic enclaves in modern metropolitan areas could maintain their prosperity: A reflection on the layout issues through the analysis of the spatial characteristics of the Niujie Hui enclave in Beijing[J]. Social Sciences of Beijing, 1997(1):76-81,83-84.]
[14]
陈肖飞,艾少伟.关系建构与信仰认同： 城市回族社区转型的地理学阐释——基于西宁东关田野调查[J].回族研究,2013(2):57-67. [Chen Xiaofei, Ai Shaowei. Relational building and religious identity: The geographic interpretation on transformation of urban Muslim community[J]. Journal of Hui Muslim Minority Studies, 2013(2):57-67.]
[15]
Wang H, Kwan M P, Hu M. Social exclusion and accessibility among low-and non-low-income groups: A case study of Nanjing, China[J]. Cities, 2020,101(C):102684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2020.102684.
[16]
Zhou S H, Wu Z D, Cheng L P. The impact of spatial mismatch on residents in low-income housing neighbourhoods: A study of the Guangzhou metropolis, China[J]. Urban Studies, 2013,50(9):1817- 1835.
[17]
Cao X Y, Chai Y W. Gender role-based differences in time allocation: Case study of Shenzhen, China[J]. Transportation Research Record, 2007,2014(1):58-66.
[18]
孙斌栋,吴雅菲.中国城市居住空间分异研究的进展与展望[J].城市规划,2009,33(6):73-80. [Sun Bindong, Wu Yafei. Progress and prospect of residential spatial differentiation of Chinese cities[J]. City Planning Review, 2009,33(6):73-80.]
[19]
石恩名,刘望保,唐艺窈.国内外社会空间分异测度研究综述[J].地理科学进展, 2015, 34(7): 818-829. [Shi Enming, Liu Wangbao, Tang Yiyao. A review of social spatial segregation measurements [J]. Progress in Geography, 2015,34(7):818-829.]
[20]
申悦,柴彦威.基于日常活动空间的社会空间分异研究进展[J].地理科学进展,2018,37(6):853-862. [Shen Yue, Chai Yanwei. Progress of research on sociospatial differentiation based on daily activity space of urban residents[J]. Progress in Geography, 2018,37(6): 853-862.]
[21]
Anemone R L. Race and Human Diversity: A Biocultural Approach [M]. Routledge, 2019:1-241.
[22]
郝时远.类族辨物：“民族” 与“族群” 概念之中西对话[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社,2013:1-318. [Hao Shiyuan. A Chinese-Western Dialogue on the Concepts of ""Race"" and ""Ethnicity""[M]. Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 2013:1-318.]
[23]
Keyes C F. Towards a new formulation of the concept of ethnic group[J]. Ethnicity, 1976,3(3):202-213.
[24]
马戎.民族社会学： 社会学的族群关系研究[M].第5版.北京:北京大学出版社,2004:1-705. [Ma Rong. Sociology of Ethnicity: Sociological Study of Ethnic Relation[M]. The 5th Edition. Beijing: Peking University Press, 2004:1-705.]
[25]
黄怡.城市居住隔离及其研究进程[J].城市规划汇刊,2004(5):65- 72,96. [Huang Yi. The study on urban residential segregation[J]. Urban Planning Forum, 2004(5):65-72,96.]
[26]
Petersen W, Novak M, Gleason P. Concepts of Ethnicity[M]. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982:1-168.
[27]
Park R E. Race and Culture[M]. Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press, 1950: 1-403.
[28]
Gordon M M. Assimilation in American Life: The Role of Race, Religion, and National Origins[M]. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1964:1-288.
[29]
Wallerstein I. The Modern World-System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century[M]. New York: Academic Press, 1974:1-440.
[30]
Bell W. A probability model for the measurement of ecological segregation[J]. Social Forces, 1954,32(4):357-364.
[31]
Reardon S F, Firebaugh G. Measures of multigroup segregation[J]. Sociological Methodology, 2002,32(1):33-67.
[32]
Wong D W S. Comparing traditional and spatial segregation measures: A spatial scale perspective[J]. Urban Geography, 2004,25(1): 66-82.
[33]
Wong D W S. Modeling local segregation: A spatial interaction approach[J]. Geographical & Environmental Modelling, 2002,6(1):81- 97.
[34]
Candipan J, Phillips N E, Sampson R J, et al. From residence to movement: The nature of racial segregation in everyday urban mobility[J]. Urban Studies, SAGE Publications Ltd, 2021,58(15):3095- 3117.
[35]
Dawkins C J. Measuring the spatial pattern of residential segregation[J]. Urban Studies, 2004,41(4):833-851.
[36]
Light M T, Thomas J T. Segregation and violence reconsidered: Do whites benefit from residential segregation? [J]. American Sociological Review, 2019,84(4):690-725.
[37]
White K, Borrell L N. Racial/ethnic residential segregation: Framing the context of health risk and health disparities[J]. Health & Place, 2011,17(2):438-448.
[38]
Woo B, Kravitz-Wirtz N, Sass V, et al. Residential segregation and racial/ethnic disparities in ambient air pollution[J]. Race and Social Problems, 2019,11(1):60-67.
[39]
Sturgis P, Brunton-Smith I, Kuha J, et al. Ethnic diversity, segregation and the social cohesion of neighbourhoods in London[J]. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 2014,37(8):1286-1309.
[40]
Park Y M, Kwan M P. Multi-contextual segregation and environmental justice research: Toward fine-scale spatiotemporal approaches[J]. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2017,14(10):1205. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14101205
[41]
马宗保.试析回族的空间分布及回汉民族居住格局[J].宁夏社会科学,2000(3):95-100. [Ma Zongbao. An analysis of the spatial distribution of the Hui minorities and the residential patterns of the Hui and Han ethnic groups[J]. Ningxia Social Sciences, 2000(3):95- 100.]
[42]
王新贤,高向东.中国穆斯林人口空间分布及演变特征[J].世界地理研究, 2021, 30(6): 1297-1307. [Wang Xinxian, Gao Xiangdong. The spatial distribution and evolution characteristics of the Muslim population in China[J]. World Regional Studies, 2021,30(6):1297- 1307.]
[43]
张薇, 杨永春, 史坤博, 等. 居住空间视角下多民族聚居城市民族融合格局演变及影响因素分析——以呼和浩特为例[J]. 地理研究,2018,37(2):333-352. [Zhang Wei, Yang Yongchun, Shi Kunbo, et al. The evolution of ethnic integration patterns and their influencing factors in multi-ethnic cities from the perspective of residential space: A case study from Hohhot[J]. Geographical Research, 2018, 37(2):333-352.]
[44]
董晔,柳雨杉.1990年代以来乌鲁木齐多民族聚居的居住格局演变[J]. 世界地理研究,2020,29(1):104-111. [Dong Ye, Liu Yushan. Evolution of residential pattern in Urumqi multi-ethnic city since 1990[J]. World Regional Studies, 2020,29(1):104-111.]
[45]
高子轶,张海峰,马晓帆,等.西宁市社会空间结构的形成及其影响因素[J].干旱区资源与环境,2021,35(1):1-7. [Gao Ziyi, Zhang Haifeng, Ma Xiaofan, et al. Analysis of the social space structure of Xining city and influencing factors[J]. Journal of Arid Land Resources and Environment, 2021,35(1):1-7.]
[46]
王建顺,林李月,朱宇,等.西部民族地区流动人口户籍迁移意愿及影响因素——以新疆为例[J]. 地理科学进展,2018,37(8):1140- 1149. [Wang Jianshun, Lin Liyue, Zhu Yu, et al. Migrants' hukou transfer intention and dynamics in western ethnic minority regions: Evidence from Xinjiang Autonomous Region[J]. Progress in Geography, 2018,37(8):1140-1149.]
[47]
谭一洺,柴彦威,杨永春.基于“推—拉” 理论的城市少数民族居民迁居动因探讨[J]. 南京社会科学,2017(3):64-70,80. [Tan Yiming, Chai Yanwei, Yang Yongchun. Motivation of migration with ethnic minority groups in the city based on pull-push theory: A case study in Lanzhou[J]. Nanjing Journal of Social Sciences, 2017(3):64-70, 80.]
[48]
艾少伟,陈肖飞,李伟伟.中国散杂居回族社区的关系建构及理论阐释——以开封为个案[J].人文地理,2015,30(3):12-20. [Ai Shaowei, Chen Xiaofei, Li Weiwei. Relational building and theoretical interpreting of Chinese Hui communities with a scattered living in small areas: A case study of Kaifeng[J]. Human Geography, 2015, 30(3):12-20.]
[49]
李亚娟,陈田,王开泳,等.国内外民族社区研究综述[J].地理科学进展,2013,32(10):1520-1534. [Li Yajuan, Chen Tian, Wang Kaiyong, et al. Review of ethnic community research[J]. Progress in Geography, 2013,32(10):1520-1534.]
[50]
齐一聪,张兴国,康琪.遗产视野下回族聚落模式的价值解析与延续[J]. 规划师,2014,30(2):107-111. [Qi Yicong, Zhang Xingguo, Kang Qi. The value of traditional Islamic community in a heritage context[J]. Planners, 2014,30(2):107-111.]
[51]
刘沛林,刘春腊,邓运员,等.中国传统聚落景观区划及景观基因识别要素研究[J]. 地理学报,2010,65(12):1496-1506. [Liu Peiling, Liu Chunla, Deng Yunyuan, et al. Landscape division of traditional settlement and effect elements of landscape gene in China[J]. Acta Geographica Sinica, 2010,65(12):1496-1506.]
[52]
孙九霞,张士琴.民族旅游社区的社会空间生产研究——以海南三亚回族旅游社区为例[J]. 民族研究,2015(2):68-77,125. [Sun Jiuxia, Zhang Shiqin. The social space production in ethnic tourism community: A case study from the Hui community in Sanya, Hainan[J]. Ethno-National Studies, 2015(2):68-77,125.]
[53]
艾少伟,周文凤,罗冰,等.城市少数民族社区地方认同的消解与重构[J]. 人文地理,2020,35(1):28-35,122. [Ai Shaowei, Zhou Wenfeng, Luo Bing, et al. Dissolution and reconstruction of place identity of urban minority communities[J]. Human Geography, 2020, 35(1):28-35,122.]
[54]
Urry J. Mobilities: New Perspectives on Transport and Society[M]. Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2016:1-382.
[55]
Hägerstraand T. What about people in regional science? [J] Papers in Regional Science, 1970,24(1):7-24.
[56]
Pred A. Place as historically contingent process: Structuration and the time-geography of becoming places[J]. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 1984,74(2):279-297.
[57]
Flamm M, Kaufmann V. Operationalising the concept of motility: A qualitative study[J]. Mobilities, 2006,1(2):167-189.
[58]
Raanan M G, Shoval N. Mental maps compared to actual spatial behavior using GPS data: A new method for investigating segregation in cities[J]. Cities, 2014,36:28-40.
[59]
Kaufmann V, Bergman M M, Joye D. Motility: Mobility as capital [J]. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 2004, 28(4):745-756.
[60]
Sheller M, Urry J. The new mobilities paradigm[J]. Environment and planning A, 2006,38(2):207-226.
[61]
Järv O, Ahas R, Witlox F. Understanding monthly variability in human activity spaces: A twelve-month study using mobile phone call detail records[J]. Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies, 2014,38:122-135.
[62]
Wang D, Li F. Daily activity space and exposure: A comparative study of Hong Kong's public and private housing residents' segregation in daily life[J]. Cities, 2016,59:148-155.
[63]
Castells M. The Rise of the Network Society: The Information Age: Economy, Society, and Culture[M]. Hoboken, New Jersey: WileyBlackwell, 2011:1-597.
[64]
Palmer J R B, Espenshade T J, Bartumeus F, et al. New approaches to human mobility: Using mobile phones for demographic research [J]. Demography, 2013,50(3):1105-1128.
[65]
Kwan M-P, Lee J. Geovisualization of human activity patterns using 3D GIS: A time-geographic approach[J]. Spatially Integrated Social Science, 2004,27:721-744.
[66]
Schnell I, Yoav B. The sociospatial isolation of agents in everyday life spaces as an aspect of segregation[J]. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 2001,91(4):622-636.
[67]
Van Ham M, Tammaru T. New perspectives on ethnic segregation over time and space. A domains approach[J]. Urban Geography, 2016,37(7):953-962.
[68]
Mooses V, Silm S, Tammaru T, et al. An ethno-linguistic dimension in transnational activity space measured with mobile phone data[J]. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 2020,7(1):1-13.
[69]
Järv O, Masso A, Silm S, et al. The link between ethnic segregation and socio-economic status: An activity space approach[J]. Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, 2020,112(3):319- 335.
[70]
Longley P A, Adnan M, Lansley G. The geotemporal demographics of Twitter usage[J]. Environment and Planning A, 2015,47(2):465- 484.
[71]
Fischer M J, Tienda M. Redrawing spatial color lines: Hispanic metropolitan dispersal, segregation, and economic opportunity[M]// Tienda M, Mitchell F (Eds.). Hispanics and the Future of America. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2006:100-137.
[72]
Hu L. Racial/ethnic differences in job accessibility effects: Explaining employment and commutes in the Los Angeles region[J]. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 2019,76:56- 71.
[73]
Mushangwe S, Astell-Burt T, Steel D, et al. Ethnic inequalities in green space availability: Evidence from Australia[J]. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 2021: 127235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2021.127235.
[74]
Mahajan S, Caraballo C, Lu Y, et al. Trends in differences in health status and health care access and affordability by race and ethnicity in the United States, 1999—2018[J]. JAMA, 2021,326(7):637-648.
[75]
Allen R W, Adar S D, Avol E, et al. Modeling the residential infiltration of outdoor PM2.5 in the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis and air pollution (MESA Air) [J]. Environmental Health Perspectives, 2012,120(6):824-830.
[76]
关美宝. 超越地理学二元性： 混合地理学的思考[J]. 地理科学进展, 2013(9): 1307-1315. [Kwan Mei-Po. Beyond binaries: Reflections on hybrid geographies[J]. Progress in Geography, 2013(9): 1307-1315.]
[77]
关美宝,谷志莲,塔娜,等.定性GIS在时空间行为研究中的应用[J]. 地理科学进展,2013(9):1316-1331. [Kwan Mei-po, Gu Zhilian, Ta Na, et al. The application of the qualitative GIS in space-time research[J]. Progress in Geography, 2013(9):1316-1331.]
[78]
Kwan M-P. From oral histories to visual narratives: Re-presenting the post-September 11 experiences of the Muslim women in the USA[J]. Social & Cultural Geography, 2008,9(6):653-669.
[79]
郑凯,崔宁,李亚军,等.购物出行空间的等级结构比较——以乌鲁木齐汉族与维吾尔族为例[J].云南地理环境研究,2011,23(4):25- 30. [Zheng Kai, Cui Ning, Li Yajun, et al. A comparative study on hierarchy of shopping trip space: A case study of the Han and Uygur residents of Urumqi[J]. Yunnan Geographic Environment Research, 2011,23(4):25-30.]
[80]
Tan Y, Kwan M-P, Chen Z. Examining ethnic exposure through the perspective of the neighborhood effect averaging problem: A case study of Xining, China[J]. International journal of environmental research and public health, Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute, 2020,17(8):2872.
[81]
何诗,柴彦威,郭文伯,等.基于整日尺度的城市女性休闲满意度及其影响因素——以西宁市为例[J].经济地理,2019,39(2):224-231. [He Shi, Chai Yanwei, Guo Wenbo, et al. City women' leisure satisfaction and its influencing factors on a daily scale: A case study of Xining city[J]. Economic Geography, 2019,39(2):224-231.]
[82]
Tan Y, Kwan M-P, Chai Y W. Examining the impacts of ethnicity on space-time behavior: Evidence from the City of Xining, China[J]. Cities, 2017,64:26-36.
[83]
Tan Y M, Chai Y W, Chen Z F. Social-contextual exposure of ethnic groups in urban China: From residential place to activity space[J]. Population, Space and Place, 2019, 25(7): e2248. https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.2248.
